IPC-7095C-2013.pdf - 第115页

Another approach is to place a low cost in-circuit tester near the end of the assembly line and use it as a manufac- turing defect analyzer (MDA). Boards are tested immedi- ately after the components are placed and solde…

For proper sectioning, the sample should be molded in

resin to alleviate chipping or destruction of the sample dur-

ing cross-sectioning (see Figures 7-38 and 7-39). If ﬁne

polishing of the area of interest is going to be required,

then the sample should be sectioned a reasonable distance

away from the interface of interest leaving sufficient dis-

tance for ﬁne polishing of the interface.

In some cases, the entire component may need to be

ground through and looked at for the integrity of various

interfaces. A common failure analyzed through cross-

sectioning is an open occurring in an assembly. Such opens

may occur at the solder interface.

7.3.8.2 Dye Penetrant Dye penetrant methods can be

used during process set-up and in failure analysis to detect

solder joint cracking and wetting problems, and package

delamination. The sample is immersed in a low viscosity

liquid dye which penetrates any cracks, delaminated areas,

or open voids. The sample can then be peeled away and

examined for the presence of dye in the solder joints or at

material interfaces. If a ﬂuorescent dye is used, the sample

is inspected under UV light. The dye enhances the visibil-

ity of ﬂaws that might otherwise be difficult to detect. The

presence of dye on a solder land indicates poor wetting to

the land, and can be used to estimate the portion of the land

that was not wetted; however, very thin cracks may be so

small that liquids cannot completely enter because the sur-

face tension of the liquid will not allow it (see Figures 7-40

and 7-41).

7.4 Testing and Product Verification

7.4.1 Electrical Testing

Electrical testing is used to

evaluate the functionality of the electronic assembly. There

are two commonly used electrical test approaches:

in-circuit test (ICT) and functional test (FT).

ICT utilizes a dedicated bed-of-nails ﬁxture to probe the

completed assembly. This test method is used to detect

faults caused by the manufacturing process and also to iso-

late the majority of nonfunctional components. The faults

found by ICT include solder bridge, solder open, compo-

nent mis-orientation, wrong component, component not

functional and conductor short.

Figure 7-38 A Solder Ball Cross Sectioned Through a Void

in the Solder Ball

Figure 7-39 Cross-Section of a Crack Initiation at the Ball/

Pad Interface

Figure 7-40 No Dye Penetration Under the Ball

Figure 7-41 Corner Balls have 80-100% Dye Penetration

Which Indicate a Crack

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Another approach is to place a low cost in-circuit tester

near the end of the assembly line and use it as a manufac-

turing defect analyzer (MDA). Boards are tested immedi-

ately after the components are placed and soldered. Prob-

lems are quickly relayed back to manufacturing so

corrective action can take place while the product is being

assembled.

ICT can be supplemented by a complete functional test at

the end of assembly. This test for product functionality can,

depending on type of product and the acceptability require-

ments, be as simple as a ‘‘go/no-go’’ test or as complex as

a complete exercising of all circuit functionality. FT is used

to detect device faults on the assembly at speed. With the

higher temperatures on lead-free solder pastes, there may

be an increase in oxidized test lands or test vias. Typically,

with tin/lead alloys you may print and reﬂow solder pastes

to provide a soldered test point for the ICT probes. Lead-

free solder pastes do not wet as well and may cause issues

with ICT. It is recommended to run a quick experiment

during the development stage of the process to understand

the impact of lead-free solder pastes on this process.

7.4.2 Test Coverage Given the current complexity in

electronic assemblies, the level of ‘‘coverage’’ of test has

become an industry issue. The more complex a board or

assembly, the more difficult it is to fully test. Indeed, it may

be difficult to test even a reasonable portion of the assem-

bly in a reasonable, i.e., cost effective, period of time.

While test of an assembly may be aided by incorporating

test into the silicon devices, this strategy is not applicable

to bare boards. Thus the challenge of test is to provide test

coverage at a high level of conﬁdence within a reasonable

period of time.

An effective process monitoring system consists of over-

lapping tools that create a large bandwidth of coverage.

Multiple tools and methods are required since there is not

one single tool or method that provides the desired cover-

age. Optical inspection, X-ray, SAM, ICT and FT are

examples of overlapping coverage. These veriﬁcation

methods should be used to monitor products and process;

they should not be used solely to screen and separate good

and bad product.

7.4.3 Burn-In Testing Burn-in is an operational and

environmental test of the complete assembly at the upper

limits of the application. This test typically ﬁnds more

component related problems than solder joint defects. The

use of burn-in testing is still in use for component evalua-

tion. Burn-in on electronic assembly is decreasing in favor

of some form of accelerated test exposure to screen out

marginal results.

7.4.4 Product Screening Tests Environmental stress

screening (ESS) is used to screen ongoing production for

poor product quality and latent defects. The purpose of

ESS is to accelerate the latent defects to actual failures,

thus eliminating these latent defects from causing failures

in the ﬁeld. Care must be taken that the ESS procedures are

not sufficiently severe to damage good product and produce

new latent defects. Solder fatigue life on BGAs shall be

evaluated on the thermal cycling of these ESS tests, other

tests, and the operating life thermal environments.

7.5 Void Identification The degree of voids permitted in

the BGA assembly attachment process and the impact on

reliability is of interest to members of the electronics

industry. The detailed requirements for end product accep-

tance shall be in accordance with J-STD-001; workman-

ship requirements shall follow the requirements of IPC-A-

610.

This section establishes the useful process development

and maintenance criteria to minimize occurrence of voids.

Current industry data suggests that voids in the solder joint

are not a reliability concern. In fact, the appearance of a

void after assembly reﬂow is an indicator that the reﬂow

process has taken place and the BGA ball has changed

characteristics. However, the aim of the process engineer

should be to minimize voids because excessive frequency

of voids may be an indication that the manufacturing

parameters need to be adjusted. Two reported causes of

voids are trapped ﬂux that has not had enough time to be

released from the solder paste, and contaminants on

improperly cleaned circuit boards. Voids appear as a lighter

area inside the solder balls and are usually found randomly

throughout the package. Some X-ray systems can distort

the size of voids through blooming. It is possible to accu-

rately measure the true volume of a void but the procedure

can be involved and requires a known reference for radio-

metric calibration of the X-ray ﬁlm or detector.

The size of BGA voids is not always the best criteria for

determining fatigue life of the solder joint. Large macro

process voids away from the solder joint to the component

land interface may not be a problem, whereas small voids

at the interface can become the criteria for fracture once a

crack starts. The location of the voids within the solder

joint is a bigger issue than the size and number of voids. In

most cases the effort is better spent on identifying and

eliminating the cause of the voids by following the design

and reﬂow proﬁles suggested in this document.

7.5.1 Sources of Voids There can be voids in a BGA

solder ball, in the solder joint to BGA interface, or in the

solder joint to PCB interface. Various sources or reasons

can be responsible for these voids.

Voids in the solder joints can be carried over from original

voids in solder balls, which could be the result of the ball

manufacturing process. Voids can be induced into the

reﬂowed solder joint by either the voids in the original

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component solder ball, or during the reﬂow attachment

process of the ball to the component. Voids can also form

near the PCB to ball interface during BGA to PCB attach-

ment. These voids are typically formed during the reﬂow

soldering process by ﬂux volatiles trapped during the

solidiﬁcation of the molten solder. The source of ﬂux vola-

tiles can be either from applied ﬂux itself (typically

rework), or ﬂux which is one of the constituents of the sol-

der paste used in the reﬂow assembly process.

Solder joint voids are caused by solidiﬁcation shrinkage,

moisture, and ﬂux volatilization as deﬁned in the follow-

ing:

• Shrinkage – Metal contraction during solidiﬁcation will

result in some voids. The interior of a solder joint is the

last part of the joint to solidify so you expect it to have a

void.

• Moisture and contaminates supply gases that can be

trapped.

• Flux in the paste degrades and becomes gaseous during

ramp-up in the reﬂow oven. On a BGA the gases are

tightly sandwiched between two surfaces and the voids

that occur typically rise to the top of the solder joint. A

high ramp rate can cause more voiding by not allowing

time for void migration out of the joint (ramp rate

example, 75 vs. 60°C/minute).

• Paste ﬂux to attach PBGAs tends to produce fewer voids

than with solder paste.

• Too much ﬂux added during the rework process can cause

voids.

• Proper oven proﬁle and clean parts can reduce solder

voids.

In addition to voids formed from via-in-pad construction

(see 6.3.5), some voids are detected in the middle to top

(ball/ BGA interface) of the reﬂowed solder joint. This is

expected because the trapped air bubble and the vaporized

ﬂux, which is applied to the PCB BGA lands, rises during

the reﬂow proﬁle. This occurs when the applied solder

paste and the BGA’s collapsible eutectic solder ball(s) melt

together during the reﬂow proﬁle, typically 210-220°C

peak temperature for tin/lead and 235-245°C for lead free.

The metallurgical composition and surface roughness of an

incoming component ball can also add to ball void cre-

ation.

If the reﬂow proﬁle cycle doesn’t allow sufficient time for

either the trapped air or vaporized ﬂux to escape, a void is

formed as the molten solder solidiﬁes in the cool down

area of the reﬂow proﬁle. Therefore, the development of

the reﬂow proﬁle is extremely important as a contributor to

the formation of voids. It is important to work with your

solder paste manufacturer to establish the reﬂow proﬁle for

the solder paste formulation you are going to implement.

Voids in solder joints are not new. Voids can be detected

under leaded components when using X-ray equipment;

however, leaded component solder joints were historically

visually inspected, not X-rayed, and therefore hidden voids

were never detected. BGA suppliers should X-ray compo-

nents before and after the J-STD-002 Surface Mount Simu-

lation Test (Test S) is run to reveal anomalies that may lead

to solderability problems.

Voiding can be a result of surface contamination at the

component land or PCB land, intermetallics forming

between solder ball and land, or un-expelled ﬂux residues

from the assembly process as shown in Figure 7-42.

7.5.2 Void Classification In order to assess different

conditions, voids have been given a speciﬁc identiﬁer,

based on location, to establish a method of void identiﬁca-

tion and the possibility of corrective action for process

improvement. The details are provided in Table 7-6 which

shows classiﬁcation criteria for the location of voids in the

BGA solder ball structure.

The following descriptions identify the ﬁve different void

types:

Type A: Void(s) within the ball (package level) as

received.

Type B: Void(s) at the ball/package substrate interface as

received.

Type C: Void(s) within the ball after board level assembly

process.

Type D: Void(s) at the ball/package substrate interface

after board level assembly process.

Type E: Void(s) at the ball/board substrate interface after

board level assembly process.

7.5.3 Voids in BGA Solder Joints Six types of voids in

solder joints have been identiﬁed and described. The char-

acteristics of each of these voids are summarized in Figure

7-43 which illustrates the typical size and location of these

voids in a BGA solder joint.

7.5.3.1 Macrovoids Macrovoids are the most widely

occurring voids in solder joints. These are caused by vola-

tile compounds that evolve during the soldering processes.

IPC-7095c-7-42

Figure 7-42 Small Voids Clustered in Mass at the Ball-to-

Land Interface

Land Pattern

on Package

Small Voids

at Ball-to-Land

Interface

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